SWI-Prolog 9.2.6 Reference Manual: Section 4.40

## 4.40 Debugging and declaring determinism

A common issue with Prolog programs of a procedural nature is to guarantee deterministic behaviour and debug possible problems with determinism. SWI-Prolog provides several mechanisms to make writing, debugging and maintaining deterministic code easier. One of them is Single Sided Unification using =>/2 rules as described in section 5.6. This section deals with annotating your program.

If a program does not behave according to these annotations it raises an error/2 exception where the formal term is `determinism_error(Pred, Declared, Observed, DeclType)`, where Declared is currently always `det`, Observed is one of fail or nondet and DeclType is one of property (det/1), guard ($/0) or goal ($/1). Using trap/1 or gtrap/1 we can ask Prolog to start the debugger in such events using

    ?- gtrap(determinism_error(_,_,_,_)).

> WARNING: The primitives in this section are experimental. The naming and exact semantics may change. If you are interested in this, please follow and contribute to discussion on the Discourse forum.

[directive]det(+PredicateIndicators)
  Declare a number of predicates as `det` (deterministic). As a result, both failure and success with a choicepoint is considered an error. The behaviour if the declaration is violated is controlled with the Prolog flag determinism_error. The default is to raise an exception (`error`). Consider the following program:

      :- det(p/1).

      p(1).
      p(2).

  Now, a call `?- p(1).` behaves normally. However:

      ?- p(X).
      ERROR: Deterministic procedure p/1 succeeded with a choicepoint
      ERROR: In:
      ERROR:   [10] p(1)

      ?- p(a).
      ERROR: Deterministic procedure p/1 failed
      ERROR: In:
      ERROR:   [10] p(a)

  Violations throw an error/2 exception `determinism_error(Pred, Declared, Observed, property)`.

  The trap/1 (cli) or gtrap/1 (gui) predicate can be used to make the debugger stop near the error. For example:

      ?- gtrap(determinism_error(_,_,_,_)).

[experimental]$
  The $/0 constructs acts similar to the !/0, but in addition declares that the remainder of the clause body shall succeed deterministically. It exploits the same underlying mechanism as the det/1 declaration. See also $/1.

  Violations throw an error/2 exception `determinism_error(Pred, Declared, Observed, guard)`.

[experimental]$(:Goal)
  Verify that Goal succeeds deterministically. This predicate has no effect if Goal succeeds without a choicepoint. Otherwise the result depends on the Prolog flag determinism_error:
  silent
    Act as once/1.
  warning
    Print a warning and act as once/1.
  error
    Raise a `determinism_error` exception.

  Note that if $/1 is used for the last call, last call optimization is not effective. This behaviour ensures consistent errors or warnings. Last call optimization with determinism checking can be realised using `..., $, Last.`, i.e. by executing $/0 before the last call rather than wrapping the last call in $/1.

  Violations throw an error/2 exception `determinism_error(Pred, Declared, Observed, goal)`.

A deterministic predicate may call normal predicates. No error is triggered as long as the deterministic predicate either ignores a possible failure, e.g., using \+/1 and prunes possible choice points created by called predicates. If the last predicate is a normal predicate the requirement to succeed deterministically is transferred to the new goal. As last-call optimization causes the information which predicate initially claimed to be deterministic to be lost, the error is associated with the called predicate. Debug mode (see debug/0 or the Prolog flag debug) may be used to avoid last call optimization and find the call stack that causes the issue.